Economic Impact of Climate Change on Water Resources

Economic Impact of Climate Change on Water Resources Economic Impacts of Climate Change in the Mountain Regions: Water as a source of peace and economic development Abstract When we think of the mountains we usually think of the mountains themselves and not the impact they make on the area below them. The purpose of this research is to review impacts of climate change at a global scale on the mountains and the mountains’ water supply. This paper also reviews major environmental/ecological, social, and economic issues facing us. Tourism industry will suffer because of it. The study concludes that climate change will bring in instability on global scale with possible water conflicts and decreasing economic developments especially in developing countries. This will bring increased people migration into the areas not much effected by water supply issues and will increase social and political instability in those areas. Keywords:relative water yield (RWY), â€Å"water towers†, â€Å"river piracy† Introduction It is estimated that out of 7.382 billion people in the world today (U.S. Census, 2017), about 11% of the world’s population live in the mountain regions (Kohler et al, 2014). The mountains provide water for billions of people. The mountains are â€Å"water towers† of the world. They cover 25% of the world’s land surface and more than 50% the world’s population depends on water that originates in the mountains (Viviroli et all, 2006). By comparison in 2015 we used less than 1% of fresh water. That water is made in more than 18,000 desalination plants. The water desalination production increased by 67% from 2008 (Thomas Sumner et all, 2016). The water from mountains is used for drinking, domestic use, irrigation, hydropower, transportation, tourism purposes and many other industries. Climate change in the mountains is bringing in an unpredictable winters. Winters with minimal snow or snow coverage which lasts for only a short time are the winters of today (J. Dawson et all, 2009). Climate change in the mountains will bring increased hazards and casualties, such as: fires, floods, avalanches, landslides, desertification, and mountain erosion. It will change the rainfall and monsoon patterns which will bring devastation and economic uncertainty to many regions. Climate change will increase people’s migration and will bring diseases not known in the area. The possibility of conflicts and even war might also increase. Water as a source of peace and economic development Mountains as water source around the world Climate change might have devastated outcome especially for semi-arid and arid areas which will be affected by less water coming from the mountains. The mountains help to distribute up 95% of water to these areas. In humid areas mountains’ distribution of water is up to 60%. (Swiss Agency et all, 1998). Figure 1 below shows mountain water run off around the world. Figure 1: Disproportionality of mountain runoff formation relative to average lowland runoff (RWY), mapped cell by cell for mountainous areas. Disproportionality in favor of runoff is given when RWY is greater than 1, its importance being marked for RWY > 2 and essential for RWY > 5 (Viviroli et al, 2007). As can be seen in Figure 1, the most important water mountain sources are regions in the Middle East, South and central Africa, Asia, Rocky Mountains in the U.S. and the Andes. In the Figure 1, we can see that relative water runoff is very important for the lower areas in the areas of where RWY is higher than 1 2 and essential for RWY > 5 (Viviroli et al, 2007). As can be seen in Figure 1, the most important water mountain sources are regions in the Middle East, South and central Africa, Asia, Rocky Mountains in the U.S. and the Andes. In the Figure 1, we can see that relative water runoff is very important for the lower areas in the areas of where RWY is higher than 1

Characteristics of each of the 5 kingdoms and their meanings Essay

Every living creature on Earth belongs to a kingdom. Scientists debate how many kingdoms there are, but most agree there are five. Here is how the five kingdoms are organized. Monera Monera are single-celled organisms that don’t have a nucleus. Bacteria make up the entire kingdom. There are more forms of bacteria than any other organism on Earth. Some bacteria are beneficial to us, such as the ones found in yogurt. Others can cause us to get sick. Protists Protists are mostly single-celled organisms that have a nucleus. They usually live in water. Some protists move around, while others stay in one place. Examples of protists include some algae, paramecium, and amoeba. Fungi Fungi are usually motionless organisms that absorb nutrients for survival. They include mushrooms, molds, and yeasts. Plants Plants contain chlorophyll, a green pigment necessary for photosynthesis, a process in which plants convert energy from sunlight into food. Their cell walls are made sturdy by a material called cellulose, and they are fixed in one place. Plants are divided into two groups: flower- and fruit-producing plants and those that don’t produce flowers or fruits. They include garden flowers, agricultural crops, grasses, shrubs, ferns, mosses, and conifers. Animals Animals are the most complex organisms on Earth. Animals are multi-celled organisms, eat food for survival, and have nervous systems. They are divided into vertebrates and invertebrates and include mammals, amphibians, reptiles, birds and fish. Actually, there are now six kingdoms. The five kingdom was during the 1969 and it included all the bacterias within one group. The five kingdom system is as follows: 1. Monera: Bacteria. They are prokaryotic and unicellular. They are mobile. 2. protista: Protists. They are eukaryotic. Either autotrophic, heterotrophic, or even mixotrophic. They live live as unicellular, multicellular, or even as a colony. Some are mobile while some are sessile. 3. animalia: Animals. Eukaryotic and are heterotrophic. They are all multicellular and are mobile. 4. plantae: Plants. Eukaryotic and mostly autotrophic (some parasitic plants are heterotrophic). They are multicellular and sessile. 5. fungi: Mushrooms, fungus, etc. Eukaryotic and heterotrophic. They are multicellular and sessile

An explanation of the history of the corrections system and varying approaches to corrections by era Essay

An explanation of the history of the corrections system and varying approaches to corrections by era Introduction                   Incarceration is a type of punishing criminal that became prevalent in the USA prior to the Revolution, although corrective imprisonment efforts started in England as early as 1500s, a number of detention facilities and dungeons as forms of prisons were in existence ever since that time. Efforts done in building prisons in was in 3 major ways (Ayers, 1984). The first starting in the period of the Jackson Ian Era that became prevalent in rehabilitative and imprisonment labor as the main punishment for many crimes in virtually all places by Civil War time. Subsequently there was incarceration following the Civil War gaining drive in the Liberal Period, getting some tools—like bail, trial, and unstipulated penalizing—in the conventional of corrective practice (Ekirch, 1987). Lastly, subsequently after the early 1970s, the USA has been involved in a historical exceptional development of its incarceration organizations at level of state and federal. In the meantime in 1973, the imprisoned persons rose in a five-fold, and in any given year 7, 000,000 individuals are under control and supervision of correction. In these times of reforming and constructing prison great alterations in the prison responsibilities, missions and structure systems of state and federal agencies for supervising and administering them, in addition to the political and legal status of prisoners themselves (Christianson, 1998). Prison is among one of a number of sanctions available to the courts to deal with those who commit criminal offences. Imprisonment today is the harshest sanction available (Alexander, 2012). In the 1600s and 1700s                   Approval of criminal behavior tends to be proceedings of public aimed at humiliating the person and avoiding others from the wrongdoing; these are inclusive of the branding, stooping stool, whipping, scorning, and the stocks (Christianson, 1998). At that time the sentence for most wrongdoings was death. Prison inclined to being a habitation where individuals were held up as they waited for their punishment and prior to their trial (Ekirch, 1987). It was hardly utilized in punishing in its way. Everyone inclusive of boys, girls, men and women were locked together in prisons (Christianson, 1998). This period prisons were poorly kept and frequently managed by careless prison warders. People died from diseases like gal fever that is a form of typhus. In this Era, a prototype correction building was build – the London Bride well. Correction houses were at first part of the Poor Law machinery, anticipated to impart industry habits by prison labor (Alexander, 2012). Many individuals locked in them were minor offenders, tramps and the unsystematic indigenous unfortunate people. Towards the end of 17th century, they were captivated into the system of prisons by local Justices of the Peace control. Question Number 2                   Description of the participants of the corrections system and their roles Correctional officer (CO):                   He assists in controlling, directing and monitoring the movements and activities of inmates (Ayers, 1984). He makes sure prison rules are followed, ensuring the safety and security of inmates, staff, visitors and the community (Alexander, 2012). As a visitor you will frequently come in contact with Correctional Officer. Correctional Sergeant                   Correctional sergeants supervise Correctional officers and perform custody work, which involves providing safety and security as well as controlling, directing and monitoring the activities and movement of adult inmates (Ekirch, 1987). Correctional Sergeants have a variety of duties depending upon where they are assigned (Alexander, 2012). Each facility has a public Access or visit Sergeant who generally can resolve issues relating to the visiting process. Correctional Lieutenant                   A correctional lieutenant is responsible for security operations during his her shift and supervises Correctional Sergeants (Christianson, 1998). This position manages any response to emergency situations that may arise. Correctional Captain                   This is the senior custody staff member responsible for facility-wide custody and security operations and supervision of Lieutenants (Ayers, 1984). Community Corrections Officer (CCO), Classification Counselor (CC)                   Each inmate has an assigned CCO or CC, depending on the facility in which they reside or the county in which they are supervised (Ekirch, 1987).. Counselors handle day-to-day issues or concerns of inmates in a housing unit. Counselors are responsible for classification and case management (education and work programs) and release preparation. CCOs are in the community offices, pre-release and work release facilities, providing a similar service to inmates who are on community supervision. Correctional Unit Supervisor (CUS)                   A CUS is responsible for the management of a housing unit, including the supervision of CCs or CCOs, and custody staff (Sergeants and Cos) (Alexander, 2012). Question Number 3   Impediments and issues faced by corrections admins when running a prison                   According to Alexander (2012), present prison populations being a mixture of short term and long term and â€Å"lifers†, definite and indefinite sentenced inmates, the sick the healthy, the young, the old. Rehabilitation and a better way of life are some of the reasoning behind such programs though the necessity of some of these programs is under scrutiny (Christianson, 1998). Politicians and tax payers frown upon such programs as conjugal visitation, some feeling that the programs are too risky and sometimes too expensive (Christianson, 1998). At the extreme this programs are looked upon as a luxury and lessen the punishment effect of incarceration. Management control of facilities is another problem (Ayers, 1984). The thought of contracting communicable diseases and being abused by violent inmates threatens staff and the general population. One solution is to remove predatory and other dangerous offenders from the population (Ekirch, 1987). HIV-Positive inmates, serial killers, violent sex offenders being some. Many have proposed isolation of problem offenders. It is a scary concept that an innocent person convicted of a crime to have contracted Aids while being incarcerated (Alexander, 2012). Even scarier to perceive is if the inmate contracted the disease as a result of rape (Blackmon, 2008). The rates of HIV and AIDS in prisons are estimated at five times higher than within the general population. This fact has been attributed to a higher number of inmates sharing of needles and also of inmates that participate in unprotected sex in prisons (Alexander, 2012). As of 1996, there were 25,000 inmates with HIV and by then only 16 states tested all inmates entering prison. The dilemma facing corrections is whether they should be segregated from the population to stop the spread of disease. The quality of life of seropositive inmates is greatly affected by administrative decisions on screening and detection, housing programs, access to quality medical treatment, mental health support, and funding. Management of HIV is very complicated (Ekirch, 1987). One must take multiple medications on varying schedules, custody and health staff must develop a supportive medication administrative system (Ayers, 1984). HIV-Positive need proper treatment and may require a higher level care that may not be available at all areas of institutions. Patients with HIV infection may require isolation if they have pulmonary tuberculosis. Obviously there is need for segregation. There is the ethical issue of whether it is right to segregate all HIV-positive inmates from the general population. Activities are important to the daily lives of all inmates (Ayers, 1984). Aids patients are no different. Decisions on housing HIV-Positive inmates should be based on what is appropriate for their age, gender, custody class, not just for the fact that they are seropositive. Not all HIV-Positive inmates are a danger to other inmates (Blackmon, 2008). The type of offence, length of time sentenced general behavior, and expert report gathered at the classification stage will be a better indication of whether they will pose a danger to the prison system. Besides communicable diseases, criminal recidivists pose an enormous social problem to society Hirsch, Adam J. (1992). A lethal predator such as serial killers and violent sex offenders pose a particular problem not just in the free world but inside prison cells. Most profilers say serial killers do not learn from mistakes in their previous killings. They feel no guilt, no remorse and have an attitude of total disdain towards their victims. There’s a self-importance that runs in all of them and must demonstrate mental abnormality, usually a combination of sexual sadism and psychopathy (Blackmon, 2008). Conjugal visitation is not available to most married and unmarried inmates in U.S. prisons it is allowed only in six states, California, Connecticut, Mississippi, New Mexico, New York and Washington (Christianson, 1998). Viewed as an unnecessary prisoner privilege in some jurisdictions, many members of the general public such as lawmakers frown upon such issue. The thought of inmates enjoying themselves while serving a punitive prison sentence is largely unacceptable to innocent, American citizens who fall prey to criminal acts. Many view visitations as improving prison environment by giving inmates something to look forward to and an incentive to participate in rehabilitative programs, and a mechanism with which to cope with prison life (Christianson, 1998). Reflecting on the prison population and some of the issues for the future of corrections, employees will have to become better versed in supervising and caring for the very dangerous, the average, the very young, the very old, the mentally ill and the infirm (Blackmon, 2008). Question Number 4                   A complete description of the rights of prisoners and the Administration of required services by prison officials: In accordance to Alexander, Michelle (2012), these rights were embraced by the First United Nations Congress on the Prevention of crimes and the treatment of offenders held at Geneva in 1995, Part I of the rules covers the general management of institutions and is applicable to all categories of prisoners, criminal or civil, untried or convicted, Basic principle There shall be no discrimination on grounds of race, color, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, property, birth or other status (Christianson, 1998). On the other hand, it is necessary to respect the religious beliefs and moral precepts of the group to which a prisoner belongs. Register According to Ayers, Edward L. (1984), In every place where persons are imprisoned there shall be kept a bound registration book with numbered pages in which shall be entered in respect of each prisoner received: Information concerning his identity The reasons for his commitment and the authority therefor; The day and hour of his admission and release No person shall be received in an institution without a valid commitment order of which the details shall have been previously entered in the register is in accordance to Bookspan, Shelley (1991). . Separation of categories 8. The different categories of prisoners shall be kept in separate institutions or parts of institutions taking account of their sex, age, criminal record, the legal reason for their detention and the necessities of their treatment in accordance to Ekirch, A. Roger (1987).. Thus, Men and women shall so far as possible be detained in separate institutions; in an institution which receives both men and women the whole of the premises                   allocated to women shall be entirely separate; Untried prisoners shall be kept separate from convicted prisoners; Persons imprisoned for debt and other civil prisoners shall be kept separate from persons imprisoned by reason of a criminal offence Hirsch, Adam J. (1992); Young prisoners shall be kept separate from adults. Accommodation                   9. (1) where sleeping accommodation is in individual cells or rooms, each prisoner shall occupy by night a cell or room by himself (Christianson, 1998). If for some reasons, such as temporary overcrowding, it becomes necessary for the central prison administration to make an exception to this rule, it is not desirable to have two prisoners in a cell or room (Blackmon, 2008). (2) Where dormitories are used, they shall be occupied by prisoners carefully selected as being suitable to associate with one another in those conditions (Christianson, 1998). There shall be regular supervision by night, in keeping with the nature of the institution. 10. All accommodation provided for the use of prisoners and in particular all sleeping accommodation shall meet all requirements of health, due regard being paid to climatic conditions and particularly to cubic content of air, minimum floor space, lighting, heating and ventilation (Ayers, 1984). 11. Every place the prisoners are needed to work or live. (a) The windows shall be large enough to enable the prisoners to read or work by natural light, and shall be so constructed that they can allow the entrance of fresh air whether or not there is artificial ventilation (Alexander, 2012). (b) Artificial light shall be delivered adequately for the prisoners to read or work without injury to vision. 12. The sanitary installations shall be adequate to enable every prisoner to comply with the needs of nature when necessary and in a clean and decent manner (Christianson, 1998). 13. Adequate bathing and shower installations shall be provided so that every prisoner may be enabled and required to have a bath or shower, at a temperature suitable to the climate, as frequently as necessary for general hygiene according to season and geographical region, but at least once a week in a temperate climate (Ekirch, 1987). 14. All parts of an institution regularly used by prisoners shall be properly maintained and kept scrupulously clean at all times (Alexander, 2012). Personal hygiene                   15. Prisoners shall be required to keep their persons clean, and to this end they shall be provided with water and with such toilet articles as are necessary for health and cleanliness (Ayers, 1984). 16. In order that prisoners may maintain a good appearance compatible with their self-respect, facilities shall be provided for the proper care of the hair and beard, and men shall be enabled to shave regularly (Alexander, 2012). Clothing and bedding                   17. (1) Every prisoner who is not allowed to wear his own clothing shall be provided with an outfit of clothing suitable for the climate and adequate to keep him in good health (Ayers, 1984). Such clothing shall in no manner be degrading or humiliating. (2) All clothing shall be clean and kept in proper condition (Christianson, 1998).. Underclothing shall be changed and washed as often as necessary for the maintenance of hygiene. (3) In exceptional circumstances, whenever a prisoner is removed outside the institution for an authorized purpose, he shall be allowed to wear his own clothing or other inconspicuous clothing (Blackmon, 2008). 18. If prisoners are allowed to wear their own clothing, arrangements shall be made on their admission to the institution to ensure that it shall be clean and fit for use (Ayers, 1984). 19. Every prisoner shall, in accordance with local or national standards, be provided with a separate bed, and with separate and sufficient bedding which shall be clean when issued, kept in good order and changed often enough to ensure its cleanliness (Christianson, 1998). Food                   20. (1) Every prisoner shall be provided by the administration at the usual hours with food of nutritional value adequate for health and strength, of wholesome quality and well prepared and served (Ekirch, 1987). (2) Drinking water shall be available to every prisoner whenever he needs it. Exercise and sport                   21. (1) Every prisoner who is not employed in outdoor work shall have at least one hour of suitable exercise in the open air daily if the weather permits (Ekirch, 1987). (2) Young prisoners, and others of suitable age and physique, shall receive physical and recreational training during the period of exercise (Alexander, 2012). To this end space, installations and equipment should be provided. Medical services                   22. (1) At every institution there shall be available the services of at least one qualified medical officer who should have some knowledge of psychiatry(Alexander, 2012). The medical services should be organized in close relationship to the general health administration of the community or nation. They shall include a psychiatric service for the diagnosis and, in proper cases, the treatment of states of mental abnormality. (2) Sick prisoners who require specialist treatment shall be transferred to specialized institutions or to civil hospitals (Ayers, 1984). Where hospital facilities are provided in an institution, their equipment, furnishings and pharmaceutical supplies shall be proper for the medical care and treatment of sick prisoners, and there shall be a staff of suitable trained officers. (3) The services of a qualified dental officer shall be available to every prisoner. 23. (1) In women’s institutions there shall be special accommodation for all necessary pre-natal and post-natal care and treatment. Arrangements shall be made wherever practicable for children to be born in a hospital outside the institution (Ekirch, 1987). If a child is born in prison, this fact shall not be mentioned in the birth certificate. Due to limitation of pages I shall summarize the rest as medical care shall be adequately provided to prisoners, discipline and order shall be maintained with firmness so as to have safe custody and a well and orderly life (Alexander, 2012)†¦ No prisoner shall be punished unless he has been informed of the offence alleged against him and given a proper opportunity of presenting his defense (Christianson, 1998). The medical officer shall visit daily and advice director if he considers the termination or alteration of the punishment necessary. Question Number 5                   A detailed description of alternative forms of corrections, including methods of rehabilitation and reintroduction to society. Prison abolition movement attempts to eliminate prisons and the prison system (Christianson, 1998). Prison abolitionists see the prisons as an ineffective way to decrease crime and reform criminals, and that the modern criminal justice system to be racist, sexist, classist (Ayers, 1984). One of the arguments made for prison abolition is that the majority of people accused of crime cannot afford to pay a lawyer. Ways of eliminating incarceration could include: Decriminalization Abolishing the system of bail Establishing community based dispute and mediation centers Restitution ie creating community mechanisms for assuring payment or services by wrong doers to the wronged Fines Suspended sentences Community probation programs Alternative sentencing Decriminalization                   Process of decriminalization means to wipe certain laws off the books. Crimes considered for decriminalization are those that are victimless (Christianson, 1998). This is defined as offences that do not result in someone feeling that s/he has been injured in a way of impelling him/her to bring the offence to the attention of the authorities (Ekirch, 1987). The essential factor is that there is no victim to bring complaint, three statutes emerge within this definition: moral statutes, illness statutes, nuisance statutes. Victimless crimes maybe irritating, annoying, or troublesome in general, but they are not really injurious to anyone in particular, they are â€Å"crimes† because the law says they are â€Å"crimes† (Christianson, 1998). Among those usually sighted are non-commercial gambling, prostitution, â€Å"deviant† sexual acts in private between consenting adult, public intoxication, possession, sale and distribution of illegal drugs, â€Å"blue laws† against doing business on Sundays, loitering, disorderly conduct and vagrancy, truancy, incorrigible, stubborn or ungovernable behavior Abolitionists advocate drastically limiting the role of criminal law (Ayers, 1984). It is realized that criminal sanctions are not an effective way of dealing with social problem. There is unjust and arbitrary law enforcement. Powerless persons are imprisoned while powerful persons go free (Ayers, 1984). Blacks and poor people bear the brunt of unequal law enforcement. Morality cannot be coerced through law. A democratic society should tolerate a wide range of individual differences (Alexander, 2012). A person’s right to do what s/he wishes should be respected as long as s/he does not infringe upon the right of others. Over criminalization encourages the wide use of discretionary power in law enforcement, because there is no complainant, police resort to questionable means of enforcement, investigative techniques used to gather evidence are often immoral and sometimes illegal (Ekirch, 1987). These include entrapment, use of informers, wiretapping, and infringement of constitutional rights such as illegal search and seizure, invasion of right of privacy and self-incrimination (Ayers, 1984). Enforcement of victimless crimes also encourages corruption. Graft and pay-offs are frequently made by neighborhood numbers rackets and places of prostitution (Blackmon, 2008). Crime syndicates manage to soak up much money flowing through illicit â€Å"industries† such as gambling and drugs. Prostitutes are arrested mostly the ones who are black, while most of their victims are white aged between 30 and 60 years thus there is selective enforcement                   Abolition of bail                   All persons are innocent of crime until proven guilty. No one may be deprived of liberty without the due process of law (Christianson, 1998). The mechanism developed by British society for this purpose was bail. De Tocqueville clearly saw that the bail system is inherently discriminatory against the poor (Ekirch, 1987). By placing a price tag on the right to freedom before trial beyond the reach of indigent, it makes a mockery of the presumption of innocence and provides the underpinning for the use of the criminal (in) justice systems by the powerful to control the powerless. Bail has been shown to be unnecessary to accomplish its stated objective of return to court (Ayers, 1984). The costs are paid in three coins: in human suffering by the poor who are its hostages; in money by the taxpaying middle class; and in the erosion of civil liberties arising from the system’s hidden abuses. In accordance to Hirsch, Adam J. (1992), the beneficiaries are: professional criminals, for whom ransom is a â€Å"business expense†; the wealthy, who are protected by a custody system paid for mainly by the taxes of the middle class as an instrument of social control against the poor and dissident; and bonds people, who make their living from the bail system and are pledged to serve that system. Despite proof that the system of bail is unnecessary to assure court appearances, the holding of hostages continues (Blackmon, 2008). The cost of their incarceration both in economic and human terms is staggering (Ekirch, 1987). Half or more of accused persons are detained in jail pending trial. On a single day, if the system of bail were abolished, upwards of 50,000 pretrial detainees could be released from jail and thousands in the arrest and arraignment stage would avoid the cage entirely. Bail has been used as an instrument of preventive detention and as a constitutionally guaranteed avenue of pretrial release (Alexander, 2012). There are thus prejudices too much room in the bail system and no defense against, the administration of justice by personal from which no one, including the judge is free. The abolition of bail would expose this hidden agenda and force the development of open and fair rules and judicial accountability. Community dispute and mediation centers                   Mediation centers present a unique opportunity for grass roots involvement in the process of justice and excarceration (Blackmon, 2008). Abolitionists recommend the establishment of such centers in every neighborhood By the use of the moot model where neighbors and kin of the disputants listen to the airing of disputes (Christianson, 1998). It is not coercive and allows the disputants to discuss their problems In an atmosphere free from the questions of past fact and guilt. Restitution                   Payment can be made by the offender for a particular amount of dollars for a particular kind of injury and y amount of dollars for another, as in workmen’s compensation or in tort (Gottschalk, 2006). The lawbreaker then is kept in the community and corrects his/her wrong, corrects discomfort and inconvenience of victim, saves community and individual economic and psychic costs of trial etc., reduces role of criminal law (Ekirch, 1987). Fines                   The poor unable to pay fines systematically filled the jails until a supreme court decision in 1971 ruled that an indigent could not be imprisoned upon non- payment of a fine but must be given an opportunity to pay in installments, the wrong doer is then able to stay in the community, saving the state probation expenses, welfare expenses, and the human costs of caging. Suspended sentences                   Used as a mechanism of establishing responsibility for wrong doing without imposing punishment or any supervisory conditions on the wrongdoer , the defendant loses fewer civil right, while probation is likened to suspended sentence, they differ in that probation carries with it the threat of imprisonment, most variations of the suspended sentence require that no law be violated (Blackmon, 2008). It is the least punitive of a range of alternative sentences. Probation                   It is the most commonly accepted and widely used mode of excarceration (Blackmon, 2008). Though mostly used on non- violent crimes, it has been extended to include other homicides and other serious wrongs which usually result in imprisonment. In unsupervised probation, persons would be under no compulsion to report or participate in programs, but could request for help from probation officers in accordance to Hirsch, Adam J. (1992). Question Number 6.                   A comprehensive list of alternative strategies to incarceration with an assessment, both pro and con, showing their worth as related to traditional, incarceration strategies. The predominate purpose this question was asked was to illustrate that there are programs accessible and effective substitutes obtainable instead of incarceration. Some of the famous ones used at present will be described briefly. Development in Early childhood: The Head Start program returns about seven dollars in benefits for every dollar invested (Ayers, 1984). Children born in poverty who attended a head start preschool program have half as many criminal arrests, less likelihood of going to jail, higher earnings and property wealth, and a greater commitment to family than similarly situated people who did not attend the program (Alexander, 2012). Reformation: Where teenagers will get ways to entertain themselves, by breaking windows and drinking liquor if not by playing ball or some other sport (Alexander, 2012). Parks and recreational opportunities like the Midnight Basketball and late night recreation center openings are proven effective at reducing crime (Alexander, 2012). When a pilot program in Phoenix, Arizona, kept recreation centers open until 2 a.m., juvenile crimes decreased by as much as 50%. The cost of the program was kept low at only sixty cents per person (Ayers, 1984). Gang Awareness: Kids often turn to gangs because of the absence of pro-social recreational alternatives. Kids also turn to gangs for a sense of being, something they may not be receiving at home (Ekirch, 1987). Parents sometimes do not take enough time with their children to show them their worth at home, giving them a reason to stay instead of roaming the streets. Most often times, gangs are more destructive to property than to human life (Alexander, 2012). When gangs do turn violent, it is most often times directed at â€Å"rival† gangs or families of the rival gang members. Gangs are a problem, not just in big metropolitan cities, but also in small suburban towns and rural America. Gang problems must be addressed at the first signs of potential activity. Society needs to teach children that gangs are not proper places to gain education and experiences, which should be accomplished more effectively in school and at home (Ayers, 1984). Education: Education is the route to better jobs and a potential way out of crime (Ekirch, 1987). In 1991, for the first time in U.S. history, cities spent more on law enforcement than on education (Alexander, 2012). Jurisdictions around the country are cutting education budgets because they lack sufficient funds, while setting aside funds for law enforcement (Ayers, 1984). 16 Schools that engage parents or caretakers in troubled communities show excellent results. Now, I don’t necessarily agree with cutting back on law enforcement spending (Ekirch, 1987). References Alexander, Michelle (2012). The New Jim Crow: Mass Incarceration in the Age of Colorblindness, New York. Ayers, Edward L. (1984), Vengeance and Justice: Crime and Punishment in the 19th-Century American South, New York. Blackmon, Douglas A. (2008), Slavery by another Name: The Re-Enslavement of Black Americans from the Civil War to World War II, New York. Bookspan, Shelley (1991). A Germ of Goodness: The California State Prison System, 1851–1944, Lincoln. Christianson, Scott (1998). With Liberty for Some: 500 Years of Imprisonment in America, Boston. Ekirch, A. Roger (1987). Bound for America: The Transportation of British Convicts to the Colonies, 1718–1775, Oxford. Gottschalk, Marie (2006). The Prison and the Gallows: The Politics of Mass Incarceration in America, Cambridge. Hindus, Michael Stephen (1980). Prison and Plantation: Crime, Justice, and Authority in Massachusetts and South Carolina, 1767–1878, Chapel Hill. Hirsch, Adam J. (1992). The Rise of the Penitentiary: Prisons and Punishment in Early America, New Haven Gottschalk, Marie (2006). The Prison and the Gallows: The Politics of Mass Incarceration in America, Cambridge. Hindus, Michael Stephen (1980). Prison and Plantation: Crime, Justice, and Authority in Massachusetts and South Carolina, 1767–1878, Chapel Hill. Hirsch, Adam J. (1992). The Rise of the Penitentiary: Prisons and Punishment in Early America, New Haven Source document

Bmw Motivation and Reward Systems - 1118 Words

5.0 EFFECT OF REVIEW OF THE PAYMENT SYSTEM ON THE MANAGEMENT OF THE APPRAISAL SYSTEM PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL SYSTEM According to Dailey (2003:4/3), an organisation s performance appraisal system is defined as a process which generates valid information about employee work effectiveness for the purpose of making informed HRM decisions. Organisations must evaluate employee performance for a number of reasons:  · Employees need to understand the behavioural requirements of the job  · Employees work is evaluated for its contributions to company goals  · Employees need to know where they stand within the organization in terms of their performance  · Employees motivation to do a good job is increased by the performance appraisal†¦show more content†¦Goals should be specific, measurable, achievable, resource-based and time-specific (SMART). When goals lack these properties, they have less motivational impact because employees lose interest in them.  · The fourth element indicates that employee commitment and acceptance of goals creates the behavioural intentions to strive for the pre-established goals. Intention is directly related to both properties. Employee intentions are deepened by the clear specification of the relationship between rewards and the goals in question  · The fifth element in the model specifies the employee and organizational outcomes resulting from the process. Properly managed goal-setting systems having adequate and timely formal and informal feedback generate task performance that is valued by the organization and its employees. Employees receive valued personal rewards (recognition, pay rises, bonuses, promotions, status etc), which create job satisfaction, and increased work motivation, which in turn deepens the commitment to goal setting. 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The Organic Foods Selection Between Ten Projects - 1702 Words

INTRODUCTION This case-study exanimate the Organic Foods selection between ten projects, totaled â‚ ¬208 million. However, evidence suggest that the Organic sales have been static since 1990, the managers needed to introduce more new products to expand the market presence and boost the company sales. Although the Organic Food board of directors limited the capital budget from â‚ ¬ 80 million. The challenge of this case is the selection and allocation of the â€Å"scares† funds among those compelling projects. This paper will be divided in three section. The first section will be discussed about the possible threat of the hostile takeover. The second part will be discussed about the financial analysis of the projects the potential problems comes with it and it will consider the division of the projects in the aggregate project plan. Finally, the third part will provide recommendations of the projects to select to the Board of Directors, followed by some comments and implications in the conclusion section. HOSTILE TAKEOVER The potential threat of hostile takeover and the importance of 1993 for Organic Foods A hostile takeover is a situation in purchase and sale transaction which take place against the will of the board of directors of a purchased company (Puziak and Martyniuk, 2012). In Organic Foods, the sales have been static since 1990, the management attribute this to the low population growth in northern Europe and market saturation in other areas.Show MoreRelatedTRUST AND INTERPERSONAL RELATIONSHIPS AND IDENTIFYING ISSUES Essay examples1466 Words   |  6 Pagestheir trustworthiness. Team project performance is directly impacted by team member’s interpersonal relationships. Collaboration and project success are effected by working relationships between team members which are believed to be trust based. 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Auditor Choice and Institutional Investor Choice after the...

The institutional investor, who has owned significant amount of investment concern with monitoring duties of management, as they gain benefit from it. They require high quality of information and have a power to carry out financial analysis. Their monitoring role become important since there is increase in agency conflict between managers and shareholders. The institutional investor tend to pressure manager in order to protect shareholder interest. Since the institutional investor need to control their investment and assess portfolio choice, they need reliable accounting information. The reliable accounting information came from annual report, as annual report provide assurance on firm health and performance. Therefore, annual report give impact to market reaction, so do the auditors brand name and their reputation. Big 4 audit firm who have good reputation, considered as good in delivering audit quality. Big 4 audit firm consists of Deloitte, PricewaterhouseCoopers, Earnst Young (E Y) and KPMG. Based on research, Big 4 audit firm may help their client to reduce agency conflict and lead to lower agency cost. Besides, Big 4 audit firm give the firm confidence to detect fraudulent financial statements and help to reduce information asymmetry (Azibi, Tounder, Rajhi, 2010). Research show that the institutional investor from French company tend to favour Big 4 audit firm, as the shareholder suffer lack of legal protection. Undeveloped financial security system make the roleShow MoreRelatedWhy The Creative Accounting Is Important Factors Essay2581 Words   |  11 Pagesand signalling theory says that managers in well performing companies are more likely to disclose true and fair view of financial information in their statements. On the other hand, legitimacy theory and institutional theory states that the organisations respond to social norms and institutional expectations respectively. 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Does Right to Life Include Right to Die free essay sample

No work can be successful without the guidance and blessing of elders and this work is no exception. It is a matter of immense pleasure to express my gratitude to my faculty Hon’ble Prof. S. K. Gaur for his guidance and excellent insights which gave direction andfocus to this paper. I thank him for lending his precious time in making this assignment anauthentic piece of work. He regularly guided me. I also owe sincere gratitude to the staff at library for always helping in the process of finding material and other sources for research. I am very grateful to my senior Mr. Animesh Kumar and all the individuals involved in the subgroup for their contributions and assistance in compiling this assignment and the recommendations that go with it: they are the outcome of an open, interactive and creative cooperation. I also thank social networking site for searching the required information in precise and as per needed. I also thank social networking site for searching the required information in precise and as per needed. How I can forget to give credit and my satisfaction to my friends. My institution and family really supported me throughout in my endeavours to which I am honoured to thank. Protection of Life and Personal Liberty â€Å"Article 21 reads as: No person shall be deprived of his life or personal liberty except according to aprocedure established by law. † The phraseology may be negative, but it has conferred an obligation on the state to ensure good quality of life and a dignified life to the people, which is the positive aspect of the article. According to Bhagwati, J. , Article 21 â€Å"embodies a constitutional value of supreme importance in a democratic society. †Iyer, J. , has characterized Article 21 as â€Å"the procedural magna cartaprotective of life and liberty. This right has been held to be the heart of the Constitution, the most organic and progressive provision in our living constitution, the foundation of our laws. Article 21 secures two rights: * Right to life; and * Right to personal liberty. The Article prohibits the deprivation of the above rights except according to aprocedure established by law. Article 21 can only be claimed when a person is deprived of his â€Å"life† or â€Å"personal liberty† by the â€Å"State† as defined in Article 12. Violation of the right by a private individual is not within the preview of Article 21. Article 21 applies to natural persons. The right is available to every person, citizen or alien. Thus, even a foreigner can claim this right. Right to Life: An Introduction The term â€Å"life† as mentioned in the Article has been given a broad meaning by theSupreme Court. Right to Life does not merely mean the continuance of a person’s animalexistence but a quality of life. In the case of Kharak Singh v. State of Uttar Pradesh, theSupreme Court quoted with approval Field, J. ’s observation in Munn v. Illinois, and held: ‘By the term â€Å"life† as here used something more is meant than mere animal existence. The inhibition against its deprivation extends to all those limbs and faculties by which life is enjoyed. The provision equally prohibits the mutilation of the body by amputation of an arm or leg or the pulling out of an eye, or the destruction of any other organ of the body through which the soul communicates with the outer world. ’ In Sunil Batra v. Delhi Administration, the Supreme Court reiterated with theapproval the above observations and held that the â€Å"right to life† included the right to lead a healthy life so as to enjoy all faculties of the human body in their prime conditions. It would even include the right to protection of a person’s tradition, culture, heritage and all that gives meaning to a man’s life. It includes the right to live in peace, to sleep in peace and the right to repose and health. In P. Rathinam v. Union of India, the Supreme Court defined â€Å"Life† as follows:â€Å"the right to live with human dignity and the same does not connote continued drudgery. It takes within its fold some of the fine graces of civilization which makes life worth living and that the expanded concept of life would mean the tradition, culture and heritage of the person concerned. In Olga Tellis, the Supreme Court has emphasized that the term â€Å"life† in Article 21 is not only restricted to mere animal existence of a person. It means something more and â€Å"the inhibition against the deprivation of life extents to all those limits and faculties by which life is enjoyed. † No Right to Die or Commit Suicide Can the right to life be interpreted to such an extent which leads to its self destruction or self opposition? That is, can it include within its ambit the right not to live or the right to die? The wordEuthanasia comes from the Greek – â€Å"Euthanatos† derived from the words ‘eu’ meaning good and ‘thanatos’meaning death. It is the intentional killing by act or omission of a dependant human being for his or her alleged benefit. Somehow the meaning of Euthanasia is explained in light of suicide while suicide is, many agree, considered as murder except that it is the victim who is the author himself. One of its kinds is assisted suicide which happens when someone provides an individual with the information, guidance, and means to take his or her own life with the intention that they will be used for this purpose. â€Å"The word â€Å"euthanasia† is somewhat ambiguous and has several possible meaning. Hence it is appropriate to explain what we mean by the term whenever it is used. For the purpose of this assignment, euthanasia will mean the act of ending the life of a person from compassionate motives, when he is already terminally ill or, when his suffering has become unbearable† Euthanasia is the intentional premature termination of another persons life either by direct intervention (active euthanasia) or by withholding life-prolonging measures and resources (passive euthanasia), either at theexpress or implied request of that person (voluntary euthanasia), or in the absence of such approval (non-voluntary euthanasia). Involuntary euthanasia where the individual wishes to go on living is aneuphemism for murder. Passive euthanasia is usually defined as withdrawing medical treatment with a deliberate intention ofcausing the patients death. For example, if a patient requires kidney dialysis to survive, not giving dialysisalthough the machine is available, is passive euthanasia. Similarly, if a patient is in coma or on a heart lungmachine, withdrawing of the machine will ordinarily result in passive euthanasia. Similarly not giving lifesaving medicines like antibiotics in certain situations may result in passive euthanasia. Denying food to a person in coma may also amount to passive euthanasia. Euthanasia and Suicide were clearly defined in the case NareshMarotraoSakhre v. Union of India J. Lodha stated- â€Å"Suicide by its very nature is an act of self-killing or self-destruction, an act of terminatingone’s own act and without the aid or assistance of any other human agency while Euthanasia or mercy killingon the other hand implies the intervention of other human agency to end the life. Mercy killing is therefore notsuicide and an attempt at mercy killing is not covered by the provisions of Section 309. The two concepts areboth factually and legally distinct. Euthanasia or mercy killing is nothing but homicide whatever thecircumstances in which it is performed. † Section 309 of the Indian Penal Code1860, punishes a person convicted of attempting to commit suicide. There had been difference of opinion on the justification of this provision to continue on the Statute Book. The question came for consideration for first time before the High Court of BombayinState of Maharashtra v. MarutiSripatiDubal. In this case the Bombay High Court heldthat the right to life guaranteed under Article 21 includes right to die, and the Hon’ble High Court struck down Section 309 of the IPC which provides punishment for attempt to commit suicide by a person as unconstitutional. Further in ChennaJagadeeswar v. State of A. P. , the Andhra Pradesh High Court held that the right to die is not a fundamental right under Art. 21 and hence Section 309 of I. P. C is not unconstitutional. In P. Rathinam v. Union of Indiaa Division Bench of the Supreme Court,supporting the decision of the High Court of Bombay in MarutiSripatiDubal Case, heldthat under Article 21 right to life also include right to die and laid down that section 309 of Indian Penal Court which deals with ‘attempt to commit suicide is a penal offence’ unconstitutional. A five-judge Constitution Bench of the Supreme Court in GianKaur v. State ofPunjab,overruled the decision of the Division Bench in the above stated case and has putan end to the controversy and ruled that Section 309 of IPC was neither violative of Article 21nor Article 14. The court held that the â€Å"right to life† under Article 21 did not include â€Å"the right to die. † As observed by Justice J. S. Verma :â€Å"Any aspect of life which makes it dignified may be read into Article 21 of the Constitution but not that which extinguishes it and is therefore inconsistent with the continued existence of life resulting in effacing the right itself†. ‘Right to life’ is a natural right embodied in Art. 21 but suicide is an unnatural termination or extinction of life and, incompatible and inconsistent with the concept of ‘right to life’. Referring to the protagonists of euthanasia’s view that existence in persistent vegetative state was not a benefit to the patient of terminal illness being unrelated to the principle of ‘sanctity of life’ or to the ‘right to live with dignity’ the Court said that this argument was of no assistance to determine the scope of Article 21 of the Constitution for deciding whether the guarantee of ‘right to life’ therein includes the ‘right to die’. The Court made it clear that the ‘right to life’ including the right to live with human dignity would mean the existence of such right upto the end of natural life. This also includes the right to a dignified life upto the point of death including a dignified procedure of death. This may include the right of a dying man to also die with dignity when his life is ebbing out. But the ‘right to die’, with dignity at the end of life is not to be confused with the ‘right to die’ an unnatural death curtailing the natural span of life. The court reiterated that the argument to support the views of permitting termination of life in such cases (dying man who is terminally ill or in a vegetative state) by accelerating the process of natural death when it was certain and imminent was not available to interpret Art. 1 to include therein the right to curtail the natural span of life. ARUNA RAMCHANDRA SHANBAUG v. UNION OF INDIA Recently,Passive euthanasia has been made legal in India. On 7 March 2011 the Supreme Court of India legalised passive euthanasia by means of the withdrawal of life support to patients in a permanent vegetative state. The decision was made as part of the verdict in a case involving ArunaShanbaug, who has been in a vegetative state for 37 years at King Edward Memorial Hospital. Facts: Aruna Ramachandra Shanbaug was a staff Nurse workingin King Edward Memorial Hospital, Parel, Mumbai. On the evening of 27th November, 1973 she was attackedby a sweeper in the hospital who wrapped a dog chain around her neck and yanked her back with it. He triedto rape her but finding that she was menstruating, he sodomized her. To immobilize her during this act hetwisted the chain around her neck. The next day on 28th November, 1973 at 7. 45 a. m. a cleaner found herlying on the floor with blood all over in an unconscious condition. It is alleged that due to strangulation by thedog chain the supply of oxygen to the brain stopped and the brain got damaged. She was bed ridden for past 37 years. The Court rejected active euthanasia by means of lethal injection. In the absence of a law regulating euthanasia in India, the court stated that its decision becomes the law of the land until the Indian parliament enacts a suitable law. Active euthanasia, including the administration of lethal compounds for the purpose of ending life, is still illegal in India, and in most countries. While rejecting Pinki Viranis plea for Aruna Shanbaugs euthanasia, the court laid out guidelines for passive euthanasia. According to these guidelines, passive euthanasia involves the withdrawing of treatment or food that would allow the patient to live. As India had no law about euthanasia, the Supreme Courts guidelines are law until and unless Parliament passes legislation. The following guidelines were laid down: 1. A decision has to be taken to discontinue life support either by the parents or the spouse or other close relatives, or in the absence of any of them, such a decision can be taken even by a person or a body of persons acting as a next friend. It can also be taken by the doctors attending the patient. However, the decision should be taken bona fide in the best interest of the patient. 2. Even if a decision is taken by the near relatives or doctors or next friend to withdraw life support, such a decision requires approval from the High Court concerned. 3. When such an application is filed the Chief Justice of the High Court should forthwith constitute a Bench of at least two Judges who should decide to grant approval or not. A committee of three reputed doctors are to be nominated by the Bench who will give report regarding the condition of the patient. Before giving the verdict a notice regarding the report should be given to close relatives and the State. After hearing the parties, the High Court can give its verdict. CONCLUSION Euthanasia, too, is a controversial subject, not only becausethere are many different moral dilemmas associatedwith it, but also in what constitutes its definition. Atthe extreme ends of disagreement, advocates sayeuthanasia, also known as physician aid in dying, orphysician assisted suicide, is a merciful method of death. At the other end are opponents of euthanasia, who mayconsider this method as a form of murder. After the detailstudy of various states legislations and the detail study ofthe cases, still the matteris a question of debate that whether Euthanasia is asuicide or dignified end of life. Many state legalize Euthanasiabut in the high profile state as well as in IndiaEuthanasia is not permitted even after their broaderverdict that right to life means dignified life and this rightto life include dignified end of life too. To provide an ultimate healing touch for the dying, thelogical, the common sense, the compassionate approachfor Euthanasia can be legalized by the interference of lawand legislation for the permissive Euthanasia society. And so far as the misuse is concern it is known that everyboon possesses some curse, even Code of MedicalEthics (Sec. 33 of Indian Medical council Act 1956) mayalso be treated as a safeguard while legalize Euthanasia as a safeguard for the curse. Thus this right to dignified end of life should bebestowed upon the individuals, family, physicians and thesociety at large with necessary dogmatic mechanism. Adecision in time can avoid torment to the dying, canrelease recourses to save other retrievable lives andavert emotional and fiscal agony to the survivors.